Since its launch in 1953, the prestigious Hungarian scientific journal, the Academic Journal of Internal Affairs (AJIA), has been a cornerstone of the dissemination of scientific work. Supported by the Hungarian Ministry of Interior, the journal serves as a key platform for academics and professionals specialising in a wide range of disciplines, including law, political science, criminology, law enforcement and security. Its commitment to promoting intellectual development and dialogue within these fields has made the Academic Journal of Internal Affairs (AJIA) a recognised source of knowledge and innovation, and a major contributor to both national and international academic communities.
Belügyminisztérium, 1014 Budapest, Szentháromság tér 6.
Making Corruption Risk Visible Interview with Dr Mária Temesi and László Kocsis, creators of the KAR-MAP system
In public administration, the prevention of corruption has become not merely a legal or ethical issue but one of the central challenges of digital governance. The convergence of artificial intelligence, data-driven decision-making, and integrity management marks a new era in public service, in which data and algorithms function not as instruments of control, but as tools for trust and organisational learning. Linked to the February 2026 thematic issue of Belügyi Szemle focusing on corruption prevention and integrity management, this interview presents a domestically developed innovation that bridges the traditional legal–ethical approach and modern, data-driven risk management. KAR-MAP (Corruption Risk Identification System – Monitoring, Analytics, Prevention) elevates position- and job-based corruption exposure analysis (hereinafter: position-based analysis) to a new level by providing AI-supported, objective, and comparable assessments based on the structured analysis of corruption risk factors (CRF1–CRF20), thereby supporting human resources, control, and integrity management decision-making. The system is built on data from a nationwide survey conducted under the coordination of the Ministry of Interior within the framework of the 2024–2025 National Anti-Corruption Strategy (NACS). Processing the results of data collection covering more than 69,000 positions posed significant analytical challenges, while simultaneously opening new perspectives in governmental integrity management by establishing the foundations of a unified and comparable risk analysis. A key metric of the system is the Corruption Exposure Composite Index (CECI), a quantitative summary indicator of position-based analysis that underpins the nationwide CECI map used for visualisation. The development of KAR-MAP aligns with Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council (the AI Act) and with Act LXXV of 2025, the Hungarian Artificial Intelligence Act, which regulate the responsible, ethical, and secure use of artificial intelligence within both the European Union and the Hungarian public sector. The system’s architecture was designed from the outset to comply with these regulatory requirements and to allow for future development with learning algorithms and predictive analytical models. Beyond measuring corruption risk exposure, KAR-MAP also serves prevention objectives by strengthening HR processes, decision support, and control functions, while providing a data structure compatible with international standards (OECD, UNODC), thereby enabling international comparability. In the following interview, Dr Mária Temesi and László Kocsis, the creators of the system, explain how technology can become a key instrument in public administration not only for corruption prevention, but also for organisational learning and transparency.
corruption prevention, KAR-MAP, artificial intelligence, integrity management
Copyright (c) 2025 Academic Journal of Internal Affairs https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Invisible Security at Sport Events: The Criminal Aspects of Sport Security
Aim: The article presents the triumvirate of measures used in each age to guarantee the safety of major sport events from ancient times to the present day; the development and application of legal, physical and personal security tools. The thesis presents the sport and prominent sport events in the 20th century. It’s importance in the 20th century, the fundamental condition of which is the creation of security. The work touches on the scope of competence of private and public security organizations, and the importance of precisely coordinated cooperative task execution. Methodology: The authors present the 20th century evolutionary processes that led us to the safe organization of major sport events in Hungary, and give an overview of how individual factors influence the security of sport events, which crimes are related to the narrower and wider environment of the event, and which security professionals must consider as risk factors. We highlight the importance of the activity carried out by criminal experts; outline the elements of preventive and proactive measures, the substance of the conspiratorial tasks of detectives and criminal intelligence officers. Findings: Security incidents at sporting events are broad but well-defined crimes. In the age of changes, the solution to ensuring security can be enhanced by complementary policing and the tools that available for the criminal service branch of the police, which have been used for centuries and millennia, and by future-oriented technological tools. Value: Based on the authors' existing knowledge and policing knowledge, as well as the results of the research, beyond simple visualization, a system of policing tools that can be used in the future to guarantee the safety of sporting events can be predicted, which will facilitate the conduct of a safe sporting event.
major sport event, security, criminal service, future security solutions
Can the 'Natural Disaster' Concept be Superseded?
Aim: The objective of this study is to demonstrate the need for a paradigm shift in terminology and concepts related to disasters, with particular emphasis on the use of the term "natural disaster" despite its compactness and widespread use. The author aims to demonstrate that natural hazards are not disasters in themselves but become disasters as a result of human vulnerability, exposure and lack of capacity, and therefore the term " natural hazard related disaster" more accurately reflects reality. Methodology: The methodological framework of the study consists of a comprehensive review of the literature and an analysis of predonimantly international trends, legal and institutional definitions. The author examines the definitions of disasters provided by the United Nations, the European Union, and Hungarian documents, and then uses the terminology of the Integrated Research on Disaster Risk (IRDR) and the EM-DAT The International Disaster Database as a starting point for classifying hazards. The study is characterized by the integrated use of quantitative data (statistical reports, research results) and qualitative analyses (interpretation of concepts, terminological comparisons). Findings: Among the most important findings of the study is that disasters are not merely the consequences of natural events, but the result of complex interactions between human vulnerability, exposure, and capacity. The author points out that while floods and storms are the most common natural hazards, earthquakes cause the most fatalities, and the assistance in complex emergencies increasingly require humanitarian resources. It is important to recognize how the media significantly influences the financing and priorities of humanitarian aid through its disproportionate coverage of disasters. Value: The scientific value of the study lies primarily in its comprehensive overview of modern approaches to hazard classification and its argument for a paradigm shift away from the concept of "natural disasters." The practical significance of the study lies in its contribution to the development of effective disaster management strategies by emphasizing the importance of reducing structural vulnerability. The theoretical contribution of the work to disaster research lies in the conceptual clarification and terminological precision that can serve as a basis for further research approaches.
disaster, hazard, classification of natural hazards, disaster management, complex emergencies
Characteristics of Perpetrators of Armed and Injorious Assaults on Police Officers in the US Population
Aim: The aim of the study was to examine the characteristics of known perpetrators of armed and injorious assaults on members of the US police agencies (2010-2019). Methodology: A secondary data analysis was conducted using data from the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted (LEOKA) program. The research focused on known perpetrators of assaults between 2010 and 2019 in which a member of the US law enforcement agencies was injured. Findings: The majority of known armed offenders (n = 903) were male (94.1%). The proportion of male perpetrators was significantly higher compared to females (p < 0.0001; OR = 267.2). The average age of the perpetrators was 33 years. The majority of offenders were in the 18-35 age group. There was a significant difference between the proportions of the different age groups (p < 0.0001). About four-fifths (81.2%) of the known peretrators had been arrested prior to the assault. The majority of perpetrators had no known mental disorder (90.4%) and had no previous contact with the victims (89.4%). Alcohol or drug use was confirmed in 28.7% of offenders. Previous research has shown that there is no clear perpetrator profile for assaults on police officers. However, the results of the present study suggest that certain characteristics are significantly more prevalent among perpetrators (young, male, criminal record, no previous contact with the victim, no known mental disorder). Value: The study examines a particular important issue in law enforcement practice. The research is based on US data, but the results are also useful for Hungarian law enforcement agencies and researchers.
law enforcement, perpetrator, assault on a public official, armed assault
Micromobility as a Criminogenic Environmental Factor The Integration of E-scooters from a Situational Crime Prevention Perspective
Aim: This study examines the traffic safety risks posed by micromobility devices, in particular e-scooters, from a criminal-sociological and police science perspective. The article explores how environmental crime risk can be reduced by applying the methodology of situational crime prevention during the transitional period of the Hungarian regulatory framework. Methodology: Drawing on the criminological theories of routine activity and rational choice, and incorporating Wilson and Kelling’s “broken windows” theory, the author analyses the way public disorder generates rule-breaking. The research employs an international comparative analysis to assess the law-enforcement enforceability of the German, Singaporean and Parisian regulatory models. Findings: The current regulatory vacuum and the anonymity associated with these devices make non-compliance a rational choice. Disordered parking conditions and the lack of appropriate infrastructure are not merely aesthetic problems but criminogenic factors that erode willingness to comply with the law. Security can be guaranteed by increasing perceived risk (through identifiability) and by preventive modifications to the physical environment. Value: The scientific added value of the study lies in adapting situational crime prevention techniques to the field of traffic policing. The proposed prevention matrix provides a practical guide for legislators in designing a regulatory framework that is both enforceable and socially acceptable.
micromobility, situational crime prevention, traffic safety, environmental crime risk
The Hungarian border lock system: construction and operation
Aim: The study presents the legal background enabling the construction of the Hungarian technical border barrier, the construction process, and the operation of the completed structure, since the goal is to decide whether the border barrier can be improved and its efficiency increased. Methodology: Explaining the operation of the technical systems with the fact that no sensitive data will be shared, as the border lock is still in place and protects Hungary against illegal migration. Personal experiences, statistics, and the analysis of the literature helped to prepare the study. Findings: The border closure complies with domestic standards and has an impact on migration. But in order to operate effectively, it is necessary to constantly respond to constantly changing challenges. Value: The study came to the conclusion that both legal and illegal migration is still taking place, with varying routes and intensity, and its decrease is not expected. Operation of the border lock will continue to be necessary.
borderclosure, law, operation, migration
The criminal law aspects of internet aggression
Aim: The study presents the phenomenon of internet aggression, which the legislator orders to be sanctioned among crimes against public order. Methodology: Review and comparison of the amendment to the Criminal Code effective from January 1st, 2025, with certain provisions of the Criminal Code and the relevant constitutional court and law enforcement practice. Findings: Several questions and concerns arise in connection with the new regulation, both in terms of criminal law and constitutional law. In my opinion, the sanctioning of the act to the detriment of public figures in the context of the discussion of public affairs is an unjustified restriction of freedom of expression. Value: The study examines the legitimacy of the fact of internet aggression, as well as its constitutional concerns and inconsistency with legal practice. The value of the study is provided by its critical observations towards legislation.
internet aggression, criminal law, crime, modification of the Criminal Code
Characteristics of the Scandinavian Criminal Policy Model, its Features in Iceland, with a Special Focus on Alternative Solutions and Challenges
Aim: In our study, after presenting the Scandinavian model of penal policy, we analyse the specific features of the Icelandic prison system. We examine the benefits of alternative sentencing in this island country, which already has a very low crime rate. Methodology: To gain a thorough understanding of the topic, we searched the relevant national and international literature, especially Icelandic literature. I was assisted in this by spending a week in the island country as an invited lecturer of the Icelandic Society of Criminology, building up professional contacts with the main researchers in the field. Findings: The main finding of the study is that Iceland is even more committed than other Nordic countries to running open prisons, with an emphasis on alternative sentencing, halfway houses and the use of imprisonment as an "ultima ratio", or last resort. Value: The main value is to summarise the main features of Scandinavian penal policy and to show how Iceland is different from other European, or even Northern European, countries, and how it achieves a reduction in the harms of imprisonment.
Scandinavian penal policy, Icelandic prison system, ultima ratio, alternative sentences
The principle and logic of allocating investigative resources in the Hungarian police
Aim: The study aims to examine the principles and logic of the distribution of investigative resources within the Hungarian police, particularly regarding efficient operation and aspects of social effects. Methodology: The research is based on a detailed analysis of the police authority and jurisdiction regulation and relies on the Crime Harm Index (CHI) concept. In addition to the practical approach, it analyses other relevant legislation and the criminological literature. Findings: The study finds that the allocation of investigative resources is currently not correctly aligned with actual crime situations, resulting in a disproportionate workload among police investigative agencies. Applying the Criminal Damage Index in Hungary could facilitate a more efficient allocation of investigative capacities and a better management of the social effects of crime. Value: The study contributes to improving police efficiency by highlighting the current system's limitations and making recommendations for introducing a modern, scientifically based investigation resource allocation method that considers the social and economic effects of crime.
Investigative resource allocation, Crime Harm Index (CHI), Scope and jurisdiction, criminal statistics
Aim: The aim of this paper is to provide a brief overview of the most fundamental characteristics of economic crime and the efforts to combat it. The occasion is a jubilee event, as in 2016, together with attorneys Bence Újhelyi and Balázs Fodor, we launched a conference series on this topic under the auspices of the Institute of Criminal Sciences at the Faculty of Law of Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary. This volume contains the lectures delivered at the 10th conference. Jubilee celebrations always provide an opportunity for reflection; in this case, I have compiled what I consider to be the most important definitions related to economic crime and the changes in economic criminal law. Methodology: I reviewed the definitions of economic crime and the development trends of economic criminal law at both international and national levels, with particular emphasis on European and Hungarian developments. Findings: Economic crimes pose an increasingly significant threat to the economy and the integrity of financial systems. The criminological concept of economic crime is complex and wide-ranging, and it cannot be equated one-to-one with the totality of economic offenses defined and punishable under The Criminal Code. Value: This paper traces the evolution of the concept from its sociological roots in 1930s North America to the current definitions of economic and financial crime used within the European Union. In terms of the purpose of economic criminal law, it highlights the EU's current focus: effectively combating organized crime, thereby also restricting the infiltration of the economy through the investment of illegal profits.
economic crime, white collar crime, economic criminal law, asset recovery
Studies in honor of a university associate professor, András Zoltán Nagy
Aim: Zoltán András Nagy, a retiring habilitated associate professor at the University of Pécs and the National University of Public Service, was honored by his colleagues at the Faculty of Law of the University of Pécs in an intimate ceremony on the occasion of his 65th birthday. The celebrant's joy was not only due to the presence of colleagues who traveled from other law faculties across the country and his family members, whose participation had been kept a secret, but also to the presentation of a commemorative volume prepared in his honor as part of the celebration. Methodology: The volume contains studies written by 19 authors. Among the contributors are doctors of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA), University professors, as well as scholars from both Pécs and Budapest. Findings: An additional unique feature of the commemorative volume is that the authors were invited to recall and share personal memories related to Zoltán András Nagy in a few sentences. This aspect makes it more distinctive than other similar commemorative publications. Value: Beyond serving as a valuable resource for further research, the commemorative volume highlights the outstanding teaching and research contributions of the celebrant at both the Faculty of Law of the University of Pécs and the Faculty of Law Enforcement at the National University of Public Service, as well as his professional achievements and personal character.
commemorative volume, University of Pécs, University of Public Service, cybercrime
Invisible money, visible crime? The emergence of cryptocurrencies in economic crime
Aim: The aim of this study is to explore the relationship between economic crime and cryptocurrencies, particularly with regard to the role that crypto assets can play in the commission of economic crimes and in removing illicitly obtained assets from the authorities' purview. The main hypothesis is that cryptocurrencies can be interpreted not only as a financial innovation, but also as a means of opening up new dimensions in the field of crime. Methodology: The analysis is based on qualitative research methods, drawing on the law enforcement experience of the prosecution office and the findings of a targeted investigation conducted by the Prosecutor General's Office into cryptocurrencies. Findings: The primary finding of the study is that the decentralized, pseudo-anonymous nature of cryptocurrencies can pose significant risks: it can facilitate the spread of economic crime and also affect the structure of economic crimes. The anonymity and easy access characteristic of cryptocurrencies hinder the effective action of law enforcement authorities in detecting and prosecuting perpetrators. Crypto assets are also suitable for withdrawing criminal proceeds from the authorities. Value: The study highlights that, thanks to technological advances and the spread of digitalization, economic criminals now have a wider range of tools at their disposal. White-collar criminals have no particular problem adapting to the changed global circumstances; in fact, they use them to their advantage when committing crimes. The prosecution's experience in applying the law and its investigation into cryptocurrencies can contribute to the development of law enforcement practices.
economic crime, cryptocurrencies, digitalization, prosecution
Invisible money, visible crime?The emergence of cryptocurrencies in economic crime
Diversion and/or Release from Prison (Review of the article by Katherine Beckett)
Aim: The aim of the review is to present diversion models operating outside the criminal justice system in the United States as alternative approaches to mass incarceration and criminalisation, and to examine in detail their associated advantages and limitations. Methodology: The author of the reviewed work analyses diversion models on the basis of secondary sources and scholarly literature on court-based diversion methods, in particular drug courts, as well as through primary research and analysis of the so-called LEAD model implemented in Seattle and other cities. In addition, observations and individual and focus group interviews were conducted. Findings: The analysis indicates that the models examined are not, in themselves, capable of providing a comprehensive solution to the issues identified; however, they draw attention to the complex institutional and social problems underlying the phenomenon. Value: Among the various diversion models, the article highlights their respective strengths and their significance.
diversion, criminal justice, incarceration
Schengen, Border Management and International Cooperation Interview with Ms Mónika Herczeg, Deputy State Secretary for European Union and International Affairs, Ministry of Interior of Hungary
The interview presents the strategic priorities and professional approach of Mónika Herczeg, Deputy State Secretary for European Union and International Affairs, within the European Union and international portfolio of the Ministry of Interior of Hungary. The discussion focuses on border control and the fight against irregular migration, highlighting the consistent representation of Hungarian interests in EU decision-making, as well as the strengthening of operational cooperation with multilateral partners and neighbouring states to curb migrant smuggling, organised crime, and terrorism. The interview details the current priorities of the Schengen and border management agenda, with particular emphasis on accelerating asylum procedures, improving the effectiveness of return mechanisms, and advancing the development and interoperability of large-scale EU information systems, in line with data protection and cybersecurity standards. A dedicated thematic section examines the practical complementarity between Interpol’s global toolset and EU information systems, as well as the role of evidence-based decision preparation (indicators, situational awareness, and scientific findings). In the concluding section, the Deputy State Secretary outlines directions for cooperation between the Ministry of Interior and the Ludovika University of Public Service, focusing on applied research, innovation, and training to support the adaptive and resilient development of border management.
interview, international, European Union, Ministry of Interior of Hungary
Current challenges and case law experiences of asset recovery based on the research of the National Institute of Criminology
Aim: The recovery of assets acquired through criminal means has, in contemporary criminal proceedings against profit-generating offences, become a principal objective – and thus a defining element of – criminal procedure. Asset recovery has evolved into an autonomous legal institution, supported by specialized organizational structures and professional expertise. Since 2017, the National Institute of Criminology has conducted several research projects on the subject at the initiative of the prosecutor’s office. The aim of our study is to present the development and current challenges of the Hungarian asset recovery framework through our research results. Methodology: The examination of asset recovery, the constituent legal institutions thereof, and the supporting forensic tools was carried out through an analysis of legislative developments and the underlying theoretical objectives that informed such changes. In addition, the study was grounded in the review of criminal case files and the collection of empirical data via focus group discussions with practitioners. Findings: According to the findings of the research, the Hungarian legal framework for asset recovery, as well as the procedures followed by the authorities, are in compliance with the requirements of European legal instruments and international cooperation. In terms of effectiveness, assessments of the FATF Global Network found that almost 80% of countries – more than 200 – are at low or moderate level of effectiveness on asset recovery. The development of (institutional) frameworks for asset recovery remains a constant subject of focus for all international organizations concerned with organised crime and financial investigations. Moreover, numerous studies worldwide examine the factors, instruments, and standards that may enhance effectiveness in this domain. Experience demonstrates that both further efforts and ongoing analyses are necessary. Value: The research conducted at the National Institute of Criminology (OKRI) has, from the introduction of targeted regulation, continuously followed the evolution of this legal institution. Through these studies, the key milestones can be traced up to the present day, while they also highlight the current international challenges which may contribute to the effectiveness of asset recovery efforts in Hungary.
asset recovery, freezing, confiscation, international cooperation
Causes of delays and possible solutions to the protraction of monstrous cases of budget fraud
Aim: The aim of the study is to explore why large-scale (so-called monstrous) criminal proceedings for budgetary fraud are delayed for excessive periods of time and what factors prevent the timely and efficient closure of proceedings. Methodology: The research is based on a normative analysis of current legislation and related judicial, prosecutorial and investigative practice, complemented by a critical evaluation of the relevant literature. The study highlights, by means of examples, the structural and practical problems encountered in the fight against budgetary fraud. The study also builds on the experience gained by the first author as a member of the Ministry of Justice’s working group investigating delays in criminal proceedings. Findings: The study concludes that the prolongation of budgetary fraud prosecutions is mainly caused by an over-expansion of the unity of offences, leading to a forced merging of offences and an increasing volume of cases. This results in structural overload, particularly at the investigation stage, as the complexity of the facts, the large number of sub-actions and the growing volume of evidence require an excessive amount of time and capacity. In the judicial phase, while the trial concentration function of the preliminary hearing could in principle help to streamline proceedings, in practice the lack of a material and procedural framework to encourage cooperation on the case load is a major obstacle. At the same time, the excessive use of expert evidence and the technical shortcomings of digital case management slow down proceedings. The timeliness of proceedings is also often jeopardized by changes in personnel (e.g. changes of judge or defense counsel) which necessitate a repetition of the procedure. The study concludes that timely and efficient administration of justice can only be ensured through complex and coordinated reform measures, covering legislation, administration of justice, infrastructure and human resources management. Value: The value of the study lies in its systemic approach to the problems of prosecuting budget fraud and in the concrete reform directions it suggests for legislation and enforcement. The proposals can contribute to increasing efficiency, reducing procedural overload and achieving timely and fair criminal justice.
budget fraud, unity of offence, delay in criminal proceedings, efficiency of criminal proceedings
Criminal proceedings against legal entities – Amendment to Act CIV of 2001, 2025
Aim: The aim of the study is to present the changes introduced by Act XLIX of 2025 amending Act CIV of 2001 on criminal measures against legal persons. The article reviews the experience of the past 20 years’ jurisprudence, the requrements of the European Union legislation and the recommendations of the 4th round of evaluation of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These all served as bases for the a comprehensive transformation of the procedure against legal persons. The study also discusses the cornerstones of the new regulation those primary aim to harmoniously integrate the procedure against legal persons into the procedure affecting natural persons. Methodology: After a brief overview of the academic discourse on the adoption of Act CIV of 2001, the article presents the experiences of legislative preparation, the related jurispridence, as well as the relevant EU legal acts and the OECD recommendation. This is followed by an interpretation of the amending provisions of Act XLIX of 2025 and a comparison with the current regulations and the provisions of Act CX of 2017 on the Criminal Procedure Code (CPC). Findings: A comprehensive review of the regulation against legal entities was necessary based both on law enforcement experience and on fulfilling international obligations. The regulation seeks to integrate the procedure against legal entities into the course of the ordinary criminal procedure, as well as into the regulatory logic of the CPC, thereby ensuring the effective operation of this modern crime prevention mechanism. Value: The reader can learn about the reasons for the 2025 comprehensive revision of Act CIV of 2001, the issues that arose during the preparation of the codification, as well as about the purpose and content of the amendment.
corporate liability, criminal liability of a legal person, criminal proceedings against a legal person, cooperation with a legal person
The expert or professional components of determining financial disadvantage, then and now
Aim: The study focuses on the examination of whether the amount of financial loss that falls within the scope of proof can be established exclusively by using an expert or in other ways in connection with criminal proceedings for criminal offenses against public finances. Where should the line be drawn in assessing the content of special expertise? According to criminal procedure experience, when does the determination of financial loss fall within, or when does it go beyond the “limits” of the knowledge of the investigating authority conducting the criminal procedure? Methodology: After a summary of the normative regulation on the use of experts, the followings are presented and contextualized, primarily based on practical experience in criminal proceedings: What specialization has taken place in the last two to three decades at the competent authority for the investigation of criminal offenses against public finances? How did knowledge, skills and practice change in application of law? What kind of data assets are now available through related regulations in this context, and what analytical tools and methods support their processing. Findings: The efficient conduct of criminal proceedings is fundamentally determined by the timeliness of the proof, and in this process timeliness and quality at the determination of the amount of financial loss – as a fact relevant to the proof – is also decisive. Accordingly, it is significant what practice in application of law has developed and is developing in this issue. Value: The term describing the special expertise requires the use of an expert is not defined in legislation. Basically, legal practice can shape the level of knowledge required to determine and judge the given question. The study attempted to present a picture of the question of judgment the level of knowledge, primarily from the aspect of changes in the practise of application of law at the criminal investigative authority.
special expertise, financial loss, criminal offenses against public finances, timeliness
The Criminal Law Protection of the Economy
Aim: The article aims to set out the foundations, limits, methods and instruments of the legal protection of the economy. Within this framework it offers a concise overview of the history of the regulation and protection of economic order, as well as the bases of criminal-law protection and the spectrum of legally protected interests. The study further situates criminal-law tools within the broader toolkit of economic protection and examines the social and moral background of, and the actors involved in, economic crime. Finally, it addresses the sanctioning of economic offences. Methodology: Following a brief historical survey, the article explores the foundations of criminal-law protection. It analyses the ultima ratio principle on the basis of decisions of the Constitutional Court and relevant international sources. It then examines societal perceptions of economic crime and its personal scope. Lastly, it provides a theoretical and practical analysis of the sanctioning of economic offences. Findings: Economic crime is a phenomenon as old as organised societies; in contemporary settings it is driven to a significant extent by profit-oriented, consumerist attitudes. The most important instruments for curbing economic crime are prevention and the inevitability of accountability. Equally crucial are legal consequences, which must exert a sufficient—yet not excessive—deterrent effect both on the individual and on society at large. Value: The paper provides readers with an overview of the rationale, limits, methods and instruments of the criminal-law protection of the economy, and offers insight into the personal background of economic crime and its social and moral background. It also sheds light on the theoretical and practical challenges of effective action against economic crime.
criminal-law protection of the economy, economic crime, economic criminal law, limits of economic criminal law
Contemporary Budget Fraud – Functional Organization or Legally Constructed Criminal Enterprise?
Aim: This study aims to review the legal framework regulating organized budgetary fraud, critique the evolving judicial practice shaped by frequent legislative changes, and outline several recommendations based on these observations. Methodology: Following a brief historical overview, the analysis examines key conceptual elements of criminal organizations — specifically "hierarchical structure" and "conspiratorial operation" — and evaluates their interpretation in judicial practice. The author compares findings from twenty randomly selected court decisions concerning budgetary fraud prosecuted under organized crime legislation with the aims and requirements of the legislation, and draws conclusions accordingly. Findings: The current legal framework has evolved through a long and winding path; however, it still fails to clearly differentiate between budgetary fraud committed as part of a criminal organization and that committed through criminal conspiracy, despite both causing multi-billion-forint damages to the national budget annually. Judicial practice tends to classify many such cases as involving organized crime, even when, from both theoretical and practical perspectives, attributing a less severe form of organized involvement would be more appropriate. The recommendations at the end of the study suggest that enhancing defendants’ willingness to cooperate could lead to more effective recovery of illicit assets and better support for reparative claims. Value: The proposals raised in this study may contribute to greater consistency in judicial decision-making, reinforcing the principles of legal certainty, proportionality, and subsidiarity in criminal law. Proper balancing of repressive sanctions and restorative measures could also enhance the protection of the national budget.
criminal organization, criminal conspiracy, budget fraud, Curia (Supreme Court of Hungary)
Strategic HRM and generational challenges in European public administration
Aim: The study aims to analyse the implementation of strategic human resource management (SHRM) in European public administrations, focusing on generational challenges, workforce planning, and HRM strategies to enhance public sector attractiveness. Methodology: The research is based on a large-scale international and Hungarian study, utilizing surveys, interviews, and statistical analyses conducted among EUPAN member states and observer countries to assess HRM frameworks and generational workforce integration. Findings: The results indicate varying levels of SHRM adoption, with some countries implementing comprehensive HRM strategies while others face structural and policy challenges. Additionally, the study highlights the role of HR data-driven decision-making and the impact of generational shifts on public administration workforce planning. Value: This research provides practical recommendations for improving generational management and modernizing recruitment and retention strategies in public administration. By identifying best practices and gaps, it offers insights for policymakers and HR professionals seeking to adapt HRM frameworks to demographic changes and labour market demands.
Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM), Generational Workforce Management, Public Sector HR Strategies, Data-Driven Decision-Making in HRM
Excellent Workplace: Illusion or Vision? Employer Branding in Public Services
Aim: This paper presents the findings of the 2024 employer branding survey conducted among the European Public Administration Network’s (EUPAN) member states, emphasising the growing significance of employer branding as a strategic human resource management tool. It plays a prominent role in an employer's ability to stand out in the labour market. This study shows that effective employer branding practices are already being implemented within the public services of several EUPAN member states, challenging the perception that it is exclusive to the private sector. Methodology: In addition to document and content analysis, we collected and analysed empirical data within the framework of the research. We used a quantitative measurement tool in the form of a questionnaire for both the international (N = 26) and domestic (N = 12,500) surveys. For the Hungarian component, qualitative research in the form of semi-structured interviews (N = 8) was also used. Findings: Public administration institutions possess core values that can enhance their attractiveness as employers, inspire younger generations to pursue careers in public service, and help retain current employees. These values form the basis of a robust employer brand in public administration. The relevance of employer branding is further amplified by ongoing legal, economic, societal and digital transformations. Value: This study offers insights into what constitutes an attractive or excellent employer, examines employee expectations of the workplace and explores generational differences. It also identifies the benefits of public sector employment and pinpoints HR functions that hinder recruitment and retention efforts in this field.
employer brand, public administration, recruitment, retention
The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged), or International and National Trends in Workplace Learning in Public Administration
Aim: In this paper we analyse the L&D related results of the 2024 international EUPAN research. We explore Gen Z’s main characteristics and needs; furthermore present the means by which the different countries provide for the development of their central government officials. We also examine to which extent generational awareness is present. We place the results of the parallel Hungarian generational research into international context. Methodology: We apply an international questionnaire survey (N= 26), a questionnaire survey of Hungarian government officials (N= 12.500), document and content analysis, statistical data analysis as well as interviews (N= 8). Findings: When designing L&D systems the perception of generational differences is as important as the differences themselves. In addition to generational affiliation attention must be paid to various other factors. Generational characteristics can be translated into needs which in turn can be translated into strategy guidelines. The discourse is useful as it draws attention to trends that are relevant not only for gen Z but the entire workforce (e.g. exponentially increasing digitalisation, mental well-being challenges). We display a range of good practices. Value: The paper offers insight for modernising L&D strategy in public administration. Based on extensive international and national questionnaire research, we identify trends and good practices related to, among others, mentoring, training, coaching, self-directed learning, personalised development, microlearning as well as digital platforms.
EUPAN, learning and development, Gen Z, public administration
Aim: In this paper we analyse the L&D related results of the 2024 international EUPAN research. We explore Gen Z’s main characteristics and needs; furthermore present the means by which the different countries provide for the development of their central government officials. We also examine to which extent generational awareness is present. We place the results of the parallel Hungarian generational research into international context. Methodology: We apply an international questionnaire survey (N = 26), a questionnaire survey of Hungarian government officials (N = 12 500), document and content analysis, statistical data analysis as well as interviews (N = 8). Findings: When designing L&D systems the perception of generational differences is as important as the differences themselves. In addition to generational affiliation attention must be paid to various other factors. Generational characteristics can be translated into needs which in turn can be translated into strategy guidelines. The discourse is useful as it draws attention to trends that are relevant not only for gen Z but the entire workforce (e.g. exponentially increasing digitalisation, mental well-being challenges). We display a range of good practices. Value: The paper offers insight for modernising L&D strategy in public administration. Based on extensive international and national questionnaire research, we identify trends and good practices related to, among others, mentoring, training, coaching, self-directed learning, personalised development, microlearning as well as digital platforms.